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I know that sentences can be short. "He ran", "I run", etc. are the first examples that come to mind. However, verbal responses to questions like "Yes" are often written with a period after it when I'm quite certain that it's not a full sentence.

One example that my colleagues and I couldn't agree on was "Charge accepted". I know it has a subject (the charge) and a past participle. But, surely it's missing a verb or something that disqualifies it from being a full sentence, thereby making it a little weird to end with a period, right? It even sounds weird without "The", but without "is" or "was" in there, it just doesn't seem like a full sentence.

I know that authors can break any grammatical rules they want at the end of the day though.

tchrist
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user15716642
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From the OED, s.v. Sentence, sense 6 a:

 a. A series of words in connected speech or writing, forming the grammatically complete expression of a single thought; in popular use often (= period n. 16), such a portion of a composition or utterance as extends from one full stop to another. In Grammar, the verbal expression of a proposition, question, command, or request, containing normally a subject and a predicate (though either of these may be omitted by ellipsis).

In grammatical use, though not in popular language, a ‘sentence’ may consist of a single word, as in Latin algeo ‘I am cold’, where the subject (= I) is expressed by the ending of the verb. English grammarians usually recognize three classes: simple sentences, complex sentences (which contain one or more subordinate clauses), and compound sentences (which have more than one subject or predicate).

You can choose which part(s) of this definition you like, and get various answers to your question.

Colin Fine
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    Well said. Might add that an online message confirming a charge can fit your second definition if a sentence is needed at all. It's essentially a rubber stamp saying PAID or CHARGED. – Yosef Baskin Jan 18 '23 at 22:22